Dr. Richard Paul and Dr. Linda Elder
Three Categories of Questions: Crucial Distinctions

In writing a College Argument, students should practice making a reasoned judgment.

A judge in a court of law is expected to engage in reasoned judgment; that is, the judge is expected not only to render a judgment, but also base that judgment on sound, relevant evidence and valid legal reasoning.

An ethical judge is not expected to pass judgments based on his or her preferences, partisanship, or personal opinions.

Judgment based on sound reasoning is never to be equated with fact alone or mere opinion alone. Facts are typically used in reasoning, but good reasoning does more than state facts. Furthermore, a position that is well-reasoned is not to be described as simply "opinion." Of course, we sometimes call the judge's verdict an "opinion," but we not only expect, we demand that it be based on relevant evidence and sound reasoning.

Making distinctions between three different kinds of questions helps us understand the rhetorical circumstances surrounding making a reasoned judgment:

1. Questions with a right answer (factual questions fall into this category). For instance: What is the boiling point of lead at sea level? Multiple choice tests often rely on students identifying the single, right answer.

2. Questions of preference: which would you prefer, a vacation in the mountains or one at the seashore? The answer to this type of question is often a matter of personal preference. A subjective preference or opinion cannot be assessed using intellectual standards of thought.

3. This third and most important kind if question in academic writing is an Open-ended question, which requires students to make reasoned judgments. The questions often have competing answers. Some answers are better or worse (well-reasoned or poorly reasoned answers). For instance: How can students use critical reflection strategies to achieve deeper learning in college?

Open-ended questions require a claim, an argument, and a reasoned judgment, supported by reliable evidence.

When open-ended questions--that require a reasoned judgment--are treated as matters of opinion or preference, pseudo critical thinking occurs. Writing papers that are subjective and self-gratifying differ from writing a college essay driven by scholarly inquiry, evidence-based thinking, and a disposition for critical thinking. That is, elements of critical thinking get lost when writers mistake personal opinion for reasoned judgment.

Sometimes people construct poorly reasoned arguments because, in arguing for a "preference," they misinterpret the rhetorical situation at hand in academic writing. We must apply critical reflection and ask the following questions:

• What argument can be made from the evidence?
• How does each piece of evidence support that argument?
• How do the pieces of evidence relate to and support each other?
• What is the strongest evidence? The weakest?

People who write self-gratifying essays with little thought about providing readers with value, might ask inappropriate questions: What if I don't like following standards? Why shouldn't I use my own standards? Don't I have a right to my own opinion? What if I prefer my own beliefs? What if I like to follow my intuition? What if I don't believe in being "rational?"

Students need to critically reflect on the difference between offering legitimate reasons and evidence in support of a claim and simply asserting something because they believe it's true, even though they have never questioned the basis for that belief.

What does evidence look like?

College writers should regard their readers as reasonable but skeptical--they will not simply accept a writer's claim without persuasive evidence. Writers make decisions about which evidence is reliable and relevant. In academic writing, we rely on peer-reviewed articles as primary documents in academic arguments. Peer-reviewed literature goes through a rigorous process of vetting whereby only ideas and arguments that are plausible and make a reasoned judgment see the light of day, i.e. are then published in a professional journal.

According to Paul and Elder, the failure to teach students to recognize, value, and respect good reasoning is one of the most significant failings of education today.